Groundwater Pumping Can Increase Arsenic Levels in Irrigation and Drinking Water

Date: June 5, 2018
Source: Stanford University
Summary: Pumping an aquifer to the last drop squeezes out more than water. A new study finds it can also unlock dangerous arsenic from buried clays -- and reveals how sinking land can provide an early warning and measure of contamination.

For decades, intensive groundwater pumping has caused ground beneath California's San Joaquin Valley to sink, damaging infrastructure. Now research published in the journal Nature Communications suggests that as pumping makes the ground sink, it also unleashes an invisible threat to human health and food production: It allows arsenic to move into groundwater aquifers that supply drinking water for 1 million people and irrigation for crops in some of the nation's richest farmland.

The group found that satellite-derived measurements of ground sinking could predict arsenic concentrations in groundwater. This technique could be an early warning system to prevent dangerous levels of arsenic contamination in aquifers with certain characteristics worldwide.

"Arsenic in groundwater has been a problem for a really long time," said lead author Ryan Smith, a doctoral candidate in geophysics at the School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences (Stanford Earth). It's naturally present in Earth's crust and a frequent concern in groundwater management because of its ubiquity and links to heart disease, diabetes, cancer and other illnesses. "But the idea that overpumping for irrigation could increase arsenic concentrations is new," Smith said.

Importantly, the group found signs that aquifers contaminated as a result of overpumping can recover if withdrawals stop. Areas that showed slower sinking compared to 15 years earlier also had lower arsenic levels. "Groundwater must have been largely turned over," said study co-author Scott Fendorf, a professor of Earth system science and a senior fellow at the Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment.

Releasing Arsenic from Clay

The research team analyzed arsenic data for hundreds of wells in two different drought periods alongside centimeter-level estimates of land subsidence, or sinking, captured by satellites. They found that when land in the San Joaquin Valley's Tulare basin sinks faster than 3 inches per year, the risk of finding hazardous arsenic levels in groundwater as much as triples.

Aquifers in the Tulare basin are made up of sand and gravel zones separated by thin layers of clay. The clay acts like a sponge, holding tight to water as well as arsenic soaked up from ancient river sediments. Unlike the sand and gravel layers, these clays contain relatively little oxygen, which creates conditions for arsenic to be in a form that dissolves easily in water.

When pumping draws too much water from the sand and gravel areas, the aquifer compresses and land sinks. "Sands and gravels that were being propped apart by water pressure are now starting to squeeze down on that sponge," Fendorf explained. Arsenic-rich water then starts to seep out and mix with water in the main aquifer.

When water pumping slows enough to put the brakes on subsidence -- and relieve the squeeze on trapped arsenic -- clean water soaking in from streams, rain and natural runoff at the surface can gradually flush the system clean.

However, study co-author Rosemary Knight, a professor of geophysics and affiliated faculty at the Woods Institute, warns against banking too much on a predictable recovery from overpumping. "How long it takes to recover is going to be highly variable and dependent upon so many factors," she said.

The researchers said overpumping in other aquifers could produce the same contamination issues seen in the San Joaquin Valley if they have three attributes: alternating layers of clay and sand; a source of arsenic; and relatively low oxygen content, which is common in aquifers located beneath thick clays.

The threat may be more widespread than once thought. Only in the last few years have scientists discovered that otherwise well-aerated aquifers considered largely immune to arsenic problems can in fact be laced with clays that have the low oxygen levels necessary for arsenic to move into most groundwater. "We're just starting to recognize that this is a danger," said Fendorf.

Satellite Insights

The revelation that remote sensing can raise an alarm before contamination threatens human health offers hope for better water monitoring. "Instead of having to drill wells and take water samples back to the lab, we have a satellite getting the data we need," said Knight.

While well data is important to validate and calibrate satellite data, she explained, on-the-ground monitoring can never match the breadth and speed of remote sensing. "You're never sampling a well frequently enough to catch that arsenic the moment it's in the well," said Knight. "So how fantastic to have this remote sensing early warning system to let people realize that they're approaching a critical point in terms of water quality."

The study builds on research led in 2013 by Laura Erban, then a doctoral student working in Vietnam's Mekong Delta. "That's where we started saying, 'Oh no,'" said Fendorf, who co-authored that paper.

As in the San Joaquin Valley, areas of the Mekong Delta where land was sinking more showed higher arsenic concentrations. "Now we have two sites in totally different geographic regions where the same mechanisms appear to be operating," said Fendorf. "That sends a trigger that we need to be thinking about managing groundwater and making sure that we're not overdrafting the aquifers."

Story Source:
Stanford University. "Groundwater pumping can increase arsenic levels in irrigation and drinking water." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 5 June 2018.

"Water Windfall" Discovered Beneath California's Central Valley

Date: June 27, 2016

Source: Stanford's School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences

Summary: New research indicates that California's Central Valley harbors three times more groundwater than previously estimated, but challenges to using it include pumping costs, ground subsidence and possible contamination from fracking and other oil and gas activities.

This image shows the California Aqueduct, with the Lost Hills Oil Field in the background.
Credit: Rob Jackson, Stanford University

California's drought-stricken Central Valley harbors three times more groundwater than previously estimated, Stanford scientists have found. Accessing this water in an economically feasible way and safeguarding it from possible contamination from oil and gas activities, however, will be challenging.

"It's not often that you find a 'water windfall,' but we just did," said study co-author Robert Jackson, the Michelle and Kevin Douglas Provostial Professor at Stanford. "There's far more fresh water and usable water than we expected."

The research, published in the journal Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences the week of June 27, highlights the need to better characterize and protect deep groundwater aquifers not only in California but in other parched regions as well.

"Our findings are relevant to a lot of other places where there are water shortages, including Texas, China and Australia," said study co-author Mary Kang, a postdoctoral associate at Stanford School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences.

A Fresh Look at Groundwater

Previous estimates of groundwater in California are based on data that are decades old and only extend to a maximum depth of 1,000 feet, and often less. Until now, little was known about the amount and quality of water in deeper aquifers.

"Water a thousand feet down used to be too expensive to use," said Jackson, who is also a senior fellow at Stanford Woods Institute for the Environment and at the Precourt Institute for Energy. "Today it's used widely. We need to protect all of our good quality water."

Times are different now. California is in the midst of its fifth year of severe drought, and in 2014 Gov. Jerry Brown declared a drought emergency in the state. To meet its surface water needs, the state is increasingly turning to groundwater supplies.

In the new study, Jackson and Kang used data from 938 oil and gas pools and more than 35,000 oil and gas wells to characterize both shallow and deep groundwater sources in eight California counties.

The researchers concluded that when deeper sources of groundwater are factored in, the amount of usable groundwater in the Central Valley increases to 2,700 cubic kilometers -- or almost triple the state's current estimates.

Complications to Consider

While this is good news for California, the findings also raise some concerns. First, much of the water is 1,000 to 3,000 feet underground, so pumping it will be more expensive. Without proper studies, tapping these deeper aquifers might also exacerbate the ground subsidence -- the gradual sinking of the land -- that is already happening throughout the Central Valley. Groundwater pumping from shallow aquifers has already caused some regions to drop by tens of feet.

Furthermore, some of the deep aquifer water is also brinier -- higher in salt concentration -- than shallower water, so desalination or other treatment will be required before it can be used for agriculture or for drinking.

Another concern the Stanford scientists uncovered is that oil and gas drilling activities are occurring directly into as much as 30 percent of the sites where the deep groundwater resources are located. For example, in Kern County, where the core of California's oil and gas industry is centered near the city of Bakersfield, one in every six cases of oil and gas activities was occurring directly into freshwater aquifers. For useable water -- water that the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency deems drinkable if treated -- the number was one in three.

Jackson and Kang stress that just because a company has hydraulically fractured or used some other chemical treatment near an aquifer doesn't mean that the water is ruined.

"What we are saying is that no one is monitoring deep aquifers. No one's following them through time to see how and if the water quality is changing," Kang said. "We might need to use this water in a decade, so it's definitely worth protecting."

Story Source: Stanford's School of Earth, Energy & Environmental Sciences. "Water windfall' discovered beneath California's Central Valley." ScienceDaily. ScienceDaily, 27 June 2016. .